Alma 11 (~82 BC) lays out a formally specified bimetallic system with named gold denominations (senine, seon, shum, limnah) doubling upward, parallel silver denominations (senum, amnor, ezrom, onti), fractional silver units halving downward (shiblon, shiblum, leah), a gold-silver equivalence (1 senine = 1 senum), a grain peg ("a senum of silver... for a measure of barley, and also for a measure of every kind of grain," Alma 11:7), a judge's daily wage (1 senine/senum per day), and a cross-denomination gold piece (the antion = 3 shiblons). This is not a vague reference to trade. It is a formally specified monetary architecture. Full analysis is in the Alma 11 appendix page; the scores below are derived from that analysis.
The text names 12 denominations with precise ratio relationships: gold doubling (senine → seon → shum), silver doubling (senum → amnor → ezrom), silver halving (shiblon → shiblum → leah), and a composite gold piece (limnah = senine + seon + shum = 7 senine; antion = 3 shiblons). This tests whether the proposed geography had named monetary denominations with formally defined weight ratios.
| Model | Score | Justification |
|---|---|---|
| Mesoamerican | 1 | Commodity exchange (cacao, quachtli). No named metal denominations; gold metallurgy absent in the BOM period. Exchange ratios existed between commodities but no formal denomination system. |
| Heartland | 0 | Prestige-goods exchange only. No named denominations, no weight standards, no metal used as money. |
| Malay | 2 | Indian-derived named weight-denominations (tical/baht, tamlung, sleng) attested in the region. Thai system had halving subdivisions (salung 1/4, fuang 1/8, sik 1/16) parallel to Alma 11's shiblon/shiblum/leah. However, named denominations are archaeologically attested only from the medieval period; the underlying weight standards are older. |
| Baja | 0 | No monetary system. Shell beads only. |
| Panama | 1 | Gold metallurgy existed but as prestige craft, not monetary medium. No named denominations or weight ratios. |
| Mexican Highland | 1 | Same commodity-based exchange as the Mesoamerican model. Markets were organized but used obsidian, ceramics, and textiles, not named metal denominations. |
| South India | 3 | The Arthashastra (~300 BC) specifies named silver denominations (pana, ardhapana, pada) and copper denominations (maashaka, ardha-maashaka, kakini). Sangam literature references pon, kasu, kanam, venpon. The karshapana weighed 32 rattis. These are formally named units with defined weight relationships, structurally parallel to the senine/seon/shum/limnah series. |
Alma 11 describes gold and silver circulating in parallel with a defined equivalence: 1 senine of gold = 1 senum of silver. This is a bimetallic standard. This tests whether the proposed geography used both gold and silver as monetary metals with a formal exchange ratio.
| Model | Score | Justification |
|---|---|---|
| Mesoamerican | 1 | Gold and silver were not monetary metals in Mesoamerica during the BOM period. Gold metallurgy arrived ~600-900 CE. No bimetallic standard. |
| Heartland | 0 | No metal used as money. Copper was ceremonial, not monetary. |
| Malay | 2 | Funan silver coinage on the Indian ratti standard is attested from ~1st century CE onward (Rising Sun coins, ~9.2g = 80 ratti). Indian-derived weight standards were present. However, no bimetallic gold-silver standard is attested in the region during the BOM period. |
| Baja | 0 | No metal working of any kind for monetary purposes. |
| Panama | 1 | Gold was abundant but used for prestige objects. No silver monetary system and no bimetallic standard. |
| Mexican Highland | 1 | Same as Mesoamerican: no gold or silver coinage in the BOM period. |
| South India | 3 | The Arthashastra names silver coins (rupyarupa), gold coins (suvarnarupa), copper coins (tamrarupa), and lead coins (sisarupa). Gold and silver circulated with defined exchange ratios (8:1 or 10:1 gold-to-silver by weight). This is a true bimetallic system. The gold-silver parity in Alma 11 (1:1 by denomination) does not match the Indian weight ratio, preventing a score of 4. |
"A senum of silver was equal to a senine of gold, and either for a measure of barley, and also for a measure of every kind of grain" (Alma 11:7). Metal money is pegged to grain. This tests whether the proposed geography had a formal linkage between metal currency and grain as a unit of value.
| Model | Score | Justification |
|---|---|---|
| Mesoamerican | 1 | Cacao functioned as a commodity currency, but there was no metal-to-grain peg because there was no metal currency. Maize was the staple crop, not barley. |
| Heartland | 0 | No monetary system to peg anything to. |
| Malay | 2 | The Indian-derived weight standard is itself seed-weight-based: the ratti (~0.11g) is the weight of a gunja seed. This is a structural parallel to Alma 11's grain-metal peg. Rice was the staple grain. However, a formal grain-metal exchange peg is not attested in the region during the BOM period. |
| Baja | 0 | No monetary or grain-exchange system. |
| Panama | 1 | No metal currency to peg to grain. Maize was grown but not used in a monetary framework. |
| Mexican Highland | 1 | Same as Mesoamerican. Commodity exchange existed but no metal-grain peg. |
| South India | 3 | The base weight unit (ratti) is literally named after a grain seed (the gunja berry). Jataka literature records grain (dhanya) used as a medium of exchange alongside metal, and rice as a standard of value. The Indian system built its weight standard on a grain, and grain and metal circulated as parallel media of exchange. This is the closest real-world parallel to Alma 11:7. |
The BOM describes functioning marketplaces and commercial exchange (Helaman 6:8; 3 Nephi 6:11-12). Trade, merchants, and commercial activity are assumed.
| Model | Score | Justification |
|---|---|---|
| Mesoamerican | 4 | Mesoamerican marketplaces were among the most organized in the ancient world. Tlatelolco (later period but the tradition was ancient) impressed the Spanish. Maya markets at Tikal and other centers are archaeologically and epigraphically attested. Cacao, obsidian, jade, salt, textiles, and feathers were traded in formalized market settings. |
| Heartland | 2 | Long-distance trade networks existed (Hopewell Interaction Sphere), but formalized marketplaces are not well attested. Exchange was more prestige-based than commercial. |
| Malay | 3 | Funan and later Indianized states were major entrepot centers. Port cities (Óc Eo) facilitated Indian Ocean trade. Commercial activity was vibrant but documentation for formal marketplace structures during the BOM period is limited. |
| Baja | 0 | No marketplace commerce. |
| Panama | 2 | Trade in gold objects, shells, and other goods. Some market activity but less formalized than Mesoamerica. |
| Mexican Highland | 4 | Same as Mesoamerican. Teotihuacan was a major commercial center. |
| South India | 4 | The Sangam period was defined by thriving commerce. The Periplus and Pliny document Indian trade ports (Muziris, Arikamedu, Korkai). Internal markets (angadi) are referenced in Sangam literature. Merchant guilds (nagarattar) were organized and powerful. The Arthashastra devotes chapters to market regulation, price controls, and commercial law. |
The BOM implies trade networks: shipping goods, Hagoth's ships (Alma 63:5-8) going northward, and general commercial connectivity.
| Model | Score | Justification |
|---|---|---|
| Mesoamerican | 3 | Extensive land-based and coastal trade networks. Obsidian, jade, and cacao moved hundreds of miles. Coastal canoe trade documented. |
| Heartland | 2 | Hopewell Interaction Sphere moved goods (copper, mica, obsidian, shells) over 800+ miles but was not a commercial trade network in the modern sense. |
| Malay | 4 | The Malay peninsula sat at the crossroads of the Indian Ocean-South China Sea maritime trade. This was one of the ancient world's most active trade zones. Funan controlled Mekong trade routes. Spices, metals, and forest products moved across vast distances. |
| Baja | 0 | Minimal trade. |
| Panama | 2 | Regional trade in gold and other goods. Maritime trade along Pacific/Caribbean coasts. |
| Mexican Highland | 3 | Same as Mesoamerican, extended to longer distances. |
| South India | 4 | Among the world's most connected trade networks. The Roman-Indian maritime trade (documented by the Periplus, Pliny, and Sangam texts) moved pepper, gems, silk, cotton, gold, wine, and horses across the Indian Ocean. Internal trade routes connected coast to interior. The Arthashastra discusses foreign trade, customs duties, and maritime regulations. Roman coins found at Arikamedu and across Tamil Nadu confirm the scale. |