Chariots are mentioned multiple times (Alma 18:9-12, 20:6; 3 Nephi 3:22). Nephi builds a ship for transoceanic voyage (1 Nephi 17-18). Hagoth builds "exceedingly large" ships for northward voyages (Alma 63:5-8). The Jaredites cross the ocean in barges (Ether 2-6). Roads and highways are mentioned in the land (3 Nephi 6:8).
Chariots imply wheeled vehicles drawn by animals. They are used for royal transport (Alma 18:9-12, King Lamoni's chariots).
| Model | Score | Justification |
|---|---|---|
| Mesoamerican | 0 | No wheeled vehicles in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. Small wheeled toys exist (Veracruz, ~500 CE) but the wheel was never applied to transport. No draft animals to pull wheeled vehicles. |
| Heartland | 0 | No wheeled vehicles, no draft animals. |
| Malay | 1 | Wheeled carts were used in Indianized mainland SE Asia, drawn by oxen/buffalo, but chariot traditions as such (light, horse-drawn, war or prestige vehicles) are not well attested in the Malay region during this period. |
| Baja | 0 | No wheeled vehicles. |
| Panama | 0 | No wheeled vehicles. |
| Mexican Highland | 0 | Same as Mesoamerican. |
| South India | 4 | Chariots (ter/ratham) were a standard component of Sangam warfare and royal ceremony. The Arthashastra's chaturanga army includes a chariot corps alongside elephants, cavalry, and infantry. Sangam literature describes chariot battles. Temple chariots (ter) for religious processions are attested from early periods. The BOM's use of chariots for both warfare and royal transport matches the Indian dual use precisely. |
Nephi builds a ship (1 Nephi 17-18); Hagoth builds large ships (Alma 63:5-8).
| Model | Score | Justification |
|---|---|---|
| Mesoamerican | 2 | Coastal canoe trade was significant. Large dugout canoes carried trade goods along Caribbean and Pacific coasts. Columbus encountered a large Maya trading canoe. But these are not the "exceedingly large ships" the text describes. |
| Heartland | 1 | Dugout canoes for river travel. No ocean-going vessels. |
| Malay | 4 | SE Asia was one of the ancient world's great shipbuilding regions. The K'un-lun po ships (described in Chinese sources) were 50-60 meter ocean-going vessels. Outrigger and double-hull designs enabled vast maritime networks. Austronesian seafaring technology was among the most advanced in the world. |
| Baja | 1 | Reed boats and rafts for fishing. |
| Panama | 2 | Coastal canoes and balsa rafts (the South American balsa tradition). |
| Mexican Highland | 2 | Same as Mesoamerican. |
| South India | 4 | South India had a deep shipbuilding tradition. The Sangam text Pattinappalai describes the port of Puhar (Kaveripattinam) with detailed shipbuilding and harbor operations. Ships crossed the Indian Ocean to Rome, East Africa, SE Asia, and China. The Arthashastra discusses naval administration and ship construction. Archaeological evidence from Arikamedu confirms large-scale maritime trade. Periplus describes Indian ships and harbors. |
The BOM requires transoceanic voyaging: the Lehites cross an ocean to reach the promised land. Hagoth's ships travel to unknown destinations.
| Model | Score | Justification |
|---|---|---|
| Mesoamerican | 1 | No evidence of transoceanic capability. Coastal navigation only. |
| Heartland | 0 | No maritime tradition beyond riverine. |
| Malay | 4 | Austronesian peoples accomplished the greatest maritime expansion in pre-modern history: colonizing Madagascar, Polynesia, and Micronesia. Transoceanic voyaging was not theoretical; it was accomplished repeatedly over thousands of miles. |
| Baja | 0 | No maritime capability. |
| Panama | 1 | Some coastal voyaging; Polynesian contact with South America has been debated. |
| Mexican Highland | 1 | Same as Mesoamerican. |
| South India | 4 | Indian Ocean crossings were routine by the Sangam period. Ships sailed from Tamil ports to Alexandria, East Africa (Rhapta), SE Asia, and China. The monsoon wind system was understood and exploited for regular seasonal crossings. The Periplus documents the routes in detail. These were not marginal voyages; they were a massive commercial infrastructure. |
"There were many highways cast up, and many roads made" (3 Nephi 6:8).
| Model | Score | Justification |
|---|---|---|
| Mesoamerican | 4 | Maya sacbe (white roads, plural sacbeob) were raised limestone causeways connecting cities. The Coba-Yaxuna sacbe was ~100 km long. These are formal, engineered highways matching the BOM description. |
| Heartland | 1 | Hopewell earthwork complexes include parallel-walled "roads" connecting geometric enclosures (e.g., Newark earthworks). These may be ceremonial rather than transportation infrastructure. |
| Malay | 2 | Some road networks in Indianized states. Less well documented than Indian or Mesoamerican roads for this period. |
| Baja | 0 | No roads. |
| Panama | 1 | Trails and paths but not formal highways. |
| Mexican Highland | 4 | Same as Mesoamerican. Extended road networks. |
| South India | 3 | The Arthashastra discusses royal highways (rajamarga) and their maintenance. Trade routes connected South Indian ports to the interior. Archaeological evidence of engineered roads is less spectacular than the Maya sacbe system, though the trade infrastructure implies a functioning road network. Score 3 rather than 4 because the archaeological evidence for formal paved highways in Sangam South India is less robust than for Mesoamerica. |
| Item | Meso | Heart | Malay | Baja | Panama | Mex High | S. India |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 59. Chariots | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 |
| 60. Ships | 2 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 4 |
| 61. Maritime | 1 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 4 |
| 62. Roads | 4 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 3 |
| Total | 7 | 2 | 11 | 1 | 4 | 7 | 15 |
| Max | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 |
| % | 44% | 13% | 69% | 6% | 25% | 44% | 94% |